Nature versus Nurture

Great man theory

Leaders are born and not made. When there is a need the great leader will arise.  

Trait theory

People are born with traits that are particularly suited to leadership. People who make good leaders have the correct combination of traits such as ambition, achievement-orientation, and decisiveness (Stogdill, 1974).

Behavioral theories

Leaders are not born they are made. Successful leadership is based in defined, learned behaviors.

Organizational Theories

Transactional Theory

Reward and punishment are the best way to motivate people. Transactional leaders work best with a clear chain of command and a clear structure for followers.

Contingency and LPC theory

Fiedler's contingency theory is the earliest and most extensively researched. The leader's ability according to Fielder (1964) is based (contingent) on situational factors, including the leader's preferred style, the motivation and abilities of followers. In Fielder's (1967) LPC (least preferred co-worker) theory relationships, power and task structure are the three key factors that drive effective styles. High LPC leaders tend to have close and positive relationships that are supportive and low LPC leaders put tasks before relationships.

Path-Goal Analysis  

House's (1971) Path-Goal Theory was developed to provide ways in which leaders can encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making a clear and easy path. According to House and Mitchell (1974) leaders can: 1) clarify the path so followers know the way to go, 2) help remove roadblocks, and 3) increase rewards along the path.

Normative Model

Vroom and Yetton (1973) defined five different decision procedures and the situational factors that influence a leaders decision making strategy. Two are autocratic (A1 and A2), two are consultative (C1 and C2) and one is Group based (G2).

• A1: Leader takes known information and then decides alone.
• A2: Leader gets information from followers, and then decides alone.
• C1: Leader shares problem with followers individually, listens to ideas and then decides alone.
• C2: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, listens to ideas and then decides alone.
• G2: Leader shares problems with followers as a group and then seeks and accepts consensus agreement.

Situational Leadership

Leaders adapt their style to meet the developmental level of the follower (Hersey & Blanchard, 1972). Style is therefore based on the readiness and willingness of the workers to perform their required tasks with competence and motivation. There are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels (skills & motivation) of the followers.

• S1: Telling/Directing
• S2: Selling/Coaching
• S3: Participating/Supporting
• S4: Delegating/Observing

Relational & Ethical Leadership

Charismatic Leaders use vision to build group cohesion. Conger & Kanungo (1994) describe five behavioral attributes of Charismatic Leaders that indicate a more transformational viewpoint: 1) vision and articulation, 2) sensitivity to the environment, 3) sensitivity to member needs, 4) personal risk taking, 5) performing unconventional behavior.

Burns' Transformational Leadership (1978) starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future that excites and converts potential followers, mixed with a high moral value for the group.

Bass' Transformational Leaders (1985) put vision, energy and passion into their followers being highly successful.  According to Bass, a leader needs to be people-oriented and have a deep commitment to the progress and personal development of their followers. 

Authentic Leadership is described as a root concept (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) that underlies positive approaches to leadership such as transformational, charismatic, and servant leadership. The idea that authentic leadership begins with is developing authenticity, that increases self-awareness.

Servant Leadership is best described by Greenleaf (1977) " as a way of being" in relationship with others. Servant-leadership seeks to involve others in decision making.  The leader can only be successful if they serve those they lead.  There are 10 critical principles to servant leadership: 1) listening, 2) empathy, 3) healing of relationships, 4) awareness, 5) persuasion, 6) conceptualization, 7) foresight, 8) stewardship, 9) commitment to the growth of people, 10) building community.

Principle Centered Leadership (Covey, 1990) requires a commitment to significant self-improvement processes with long-term effectiveness change for the person in terms of their quality of work and life. When people are committed to their personal growth and improvement they are more likely to contribute their increased potential toward their organization and career objectives.

Values Centered Leadership by Tom Chappell is conveyed in his message of leadership through an ideal of a "common goodness in others." Tom Chappell managed to keep this value of seeing the goodness in others while maintaining the financially successful business - Tom's of Maine (Keller, 2005).

Values-centered LeadershipT (Lance Secretan, 2000) is based on the key idea that leadership has timeless values that help us to be of service to others. These "Primary Values" help us in our own personal growth through: 1) Mastery: Undertaking whatever you do to the highest standards of which you are capable, 2) Chemistry: Relating so well with others that they actively seek to associate themselves with you, 3) Delivery: Identifying the needs of others and meeting them with respect and a passion for being of service.

References

Avolio, B., & Gardner, W. (2005). Authentic leadership: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16 (3), 315-338.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectation. New York : Free Press.

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership . New York : Harper & Row

Conger, J. A. & Kanungo, R. N. (1994). Charismatic Leadership in Organizations: Perceived Behavioral Attributes and Their Measurement. Journal of Organizational Behavior , Vol. 15(5), pp. 439-452.

Covey, S. R. (1990). Principle-centered leadership. New York : Fireside.

Fiedler, F.E. (1964). A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. In L. Berkowitz (ed), Advances in experimental social psychology , NY:
Academic press.

Fiedler, F.E. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness , NY: McGraw-Hill.

Fiedler, F.E. (1986). The contribution of cognitive resources of leadership performance. In L. Berkowitz (ed), Advances in experimental social psychology . NY: Academic Press.

Greenleaf, R.K. (1977). Servant-Leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness. Mahwah , NJ : Paulist Press.

Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. (1972). Management of Organizational Behavior: Utilizing Human Resources . Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall.  

House, R.J. (1971). A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, 321-339.

House, R.J. and Mitchell, T.R. (1974). Path-goal theory of leadership. Contemporary Business, 3, Fall, 81-98.

Keller, T. (2005). Crunchy Capitalism: How Value-Centered Leadership Has Allowed Tom's of Maine and the Environment to Prosper . The Dartmouth Green Magazine.  

Secretan, L. (2000). http://www.secretan.com/aboutus_lance_secretan.php .

Stogdill, R.M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature , New York : Free Press.

Vroom, V.H. and Yetton, P.W. (1973). Leadership and decision-making . Pittsburg : University of Pittsburg Press.